The Global Proliferation of China's Data-Driven Authoritarianism

New Delhi: As technological innovations increasingly permeate everyday life, the ethical considerations surrounding contemporary digital environments become even more critical. On one hand, the introduction of data-driven technologies in governance has resulted in groundbreaking benefits such as enhanced efficiency, reduced time and energy consumption, inclusivity, and streamlined operations. Conversely, it has granted governments unparalleled access to data regarding citizens' daily choices, heightening the risk of invasive surveillance, social repression, and manipulation.

This is particularly concerning in authoritarian states where privacy and data security laws are weak, and civil society is suppressed. The ascent of China as a leader in the production and distribution of data-centric technologies, including AI surveillance tools, poses a significant threat to the existing global order that is founded on democratic principles and individual agency.

The People's Republic of China's (PRC) fascination with mass surveillance dates back to 1998 when it initiated the 'Golden Shield' project, which encompasses the notorious censorship mechanism known as the 'Great Firewall'. Since President Xi Jinping assumed leadership in 2013, the PRC has constructed an extensive network of approximately 700 million CCTV cameras, effectively providing one surveillance camera for every two citizens. This vast system gathers and processes diverse types of data, from license plate recognition to facial identification, which are then utilized to support the country's infamous social credit system that rewards or punishes citizens based on their behavior.

Predictably, the PRC is also the foremost exporter of mass surveillance technology, now enhanced by AI innovations. Three Chinese companies: Hikvision, Dahua Technologies, and Uniview Technologies are estimated to capture around 30% of the global video surveillance market.

Along with exporting high-tech surveillance equipment like AI-powered camera networks, Internet of Things (IoT), and cloud computing that gather intimate behavioral data, the PRC has been training personnel from recipient nations to ensure effective operation of these advanced tools.

With a growing demand for Chinese surveillance technologies in South and Southeast Asia, nations such as Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand have received not only the PRC's tools but also valuable training support. Additionally, China has extended these technologies to economically disadvantaged African countries like Zimbabwe and Uganda. To encourage these nations to adopt Chinese surveillance solutions, China often employs strategies such as free trials and subsidized pricing. Moreover, security analysts have expressed concerns over Chinese consumer applications like TikTok, WeChat, and Shein, with several countries banning them due to national security risks. These platforms may expose vast amounts of sensitive data on foreign users, which could be exploited to further China's geopolitical objectives.

China stands to gain significant strategic advantages by exporting what Samantha Hoffman describes as 'tech-enhanced authoritarianism'. This not only amplifies Chinese influence globally and realizes the vision of a 'digital Silk Road' but also fosters deeper political-security relations between China and recipient nations. Even democratic countries, while engaging economically with China, exhibit a degree of caution regarding political-security ties. As more nations embrace the Chinese model of data-driven authoritarianism, these practices may gain normalization and legitimacy, not only domestically but also on a global scale, potentially reshaping the international order in line with Chinese hegemonic aspirations.

A February 2025 report by the National Endowment for Democracy identifies four key data-centric technologies that pose a risk of dangerously transforming the digital surveillance landscape, both within China and globally. The first is AI-surveillance applications, encompassing advanced biometric surveillance and 'smart city brains'. Together, these technologies can collect detailed physical and behavioral data from individuals and store it in cloud infrastructures, enabling predictions of social behavior and responses from security forces. These technologies have proven useful for effective governance, such as contact tracing during the pandemic, improved traffic management, swift police responses, and criminal tracking.

However, in a techno-authoritarian state like China, such capabilities are also leveraged for social control, monitoring citizens' movements, suppressing protests, and targeting individuals who travel to other cities to voice grievances through 'petitioning'. This is particularly evident among communities perceived as threats to the state, such as the Uyghurs and Tibetans.

Additionally, the report highlights the development of Chinese Large Language Models (LLMs), such as DeepSeek, which gained attention for its cost-effectiveness. However, shortly after its launch, several government agencies prohibited its use due to concerns about surveillance, data privacy violations, and potential misuse. Furthermore, it has been revealed that the model could generate manipulative responses to politically sensitive questions, raising fears about its indoctrination potential.

The second category of technology noted in the report concerns the 'metaverse', which utilizes virtual or augmented reality and neuro-technologies, either implantable or non-implantable. These technologies have the potential to digitally interpret not only an individual's physical actions but also their inner thoughts and emotional states. Consequently, they present unprecedented opportunities to manipulate a person's psychological and emotional well-being, leading to alarming concerns about human agency or 'brain-jacking'. Although China is still in the early stages of these technologies, it has been a leader in global research on brain-computer interfaces.

Thirdly, the report flagged advancements in quantum computing and communications as a significant threat that could render current encryption methods obsolete and endanger dissidents, journalists, and minority groups.

Finally, the introduction of China's Central Bank Digital Currency is raising concerns about covert and pervasive government monitoring of citizens' transactions, alongside the potential to circumvent international sanctions.

In a rapidly evolving geopolitical landscape, democratic nations must unite to address the global spread of Chinese digital authoritarianism before it becomes uncontrollable. Governments must protect citizens' digital rights, privacy, transparency, and accountability against the threats posed by various Chinese surveillance tools. Empowering citizens with information and agency is fundamental to democratic citizenship. International collaboration to establish a normative framework for transparent digital governance is essential, as are proactive collective efforts to curtail the expansion of Chinese surveillance infrastructure. The time has come for democratic countries to safeguard the core values of a free and open world.

(N.C. Bipindra is the Chairman of Delhi-based think tank Law and Society Alliance. The views expressed herein are personal.)